Three Kingdoms
The Three Kingdoms period (Traditional Chinese: ¤T°ê; Simplified Chinese: ¤Tƒö;
pinyin: S °ngu Ã) is a period in the history of China, part of an era of disunity
called the Six Dynasties. In a strict academic sense it refers to the period
between the foundation of the Wei in 220 and the conquest of the Wu by the Jin
Dynasty in 280. However, many Chinese historians and laymen extend the starting
point of this period back to the uprising of the Yellow Turbans in 184.
The three kingdoms were the Kingdom of Wei (ÃQ), the Kingdom of Han (º~), and
the Kingdom of Wu (§d). To distinguish these states from earlier states of the
same name, historians prepended a character: Wei is also known as Cao Wei (±äÃQ),
Han is also known as Shu Han (¸¾º~), which later became more commonly known as
Shu, and Wu is also known as Eastern Wu (ªF§d). The term "Three Kingdoms"
itself is somewhat of a mistranslation, since each state was eventually headed
by an Emperor who claimed legitimate succession from the Han Dynasty, not by
kings. Nevertheless the term has become standard among sinologists and will
be used in this article.
The earlier, "unofficial" part of the period, from 190 to 220, was
marked by chaotic infighting between warlords in various parts of China. The
middle part of the period, from 220 and 263, was marked by a more militarily
stable arrangement between three rival states, Kingdom of Wei (ÃQ), Kingdom of
Han (º~), and Kingdom of Wu (§d). The later part of this period was marked by
the collapse of the tripartite situation: first the destruction of Shu by Wei
(263), then the overthrow of Wei by the Jin Dynasty (265), and the destruction
of Wu by Jin (280).
Although relatively short, this historical period has been greatly romanticised
in the cultures of China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam. It has been celebrated and
popularised in operas, folk stories, novels and in more recent times, films,
television serials, and video games. The best known of these is undoubtedly
the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, a fictional account of the period which draws
heavily on history. The authoritative historical record of the era is Chen Shou's
Sanguo Zhi, along with Pei Songzhi's later annotations of the text.
The Three Kingdoms period is one of the bloodiest in Chinese history. A population
census in late Eastern Han Dynasty reported a population of approximately 56
million, while a population census in early Western Jin dynasty (after Jin re-unified
China) reported a population of approximately 16 million. Even taking into account
the inaccuracies of these census reports, it is safe to assume that a large
percentage of the population was wiped out during the constant wars waged during
this period.
Collapse of dynastic power
What is traditionally thought of as the beginning of the "unofficial"
Three Kingdoms Period is the Yellow Turban Rebellion led by Zhang Jiao in 184.
The year long revolt devastated northern China, as Zhang's religious sect, the
Way of Peace, battled the weakened Han Empire, whose army was led by He Jin.
The Way of Peace primarily composed of farmers who had suffered greatly under
the corrupt government system and thus easily converted by Zhang Jiao to create
a "new and peaceful world." The rebellion ended when Zhang Jiao died
of illness, but the chaos the rebellion wrought, when combined with the natural
disasters that had overrun China in the same period, destabilized the Han Dynasty
and doomed it to fall. The rebellion also caused the central government to increase
the allowance of military power of the local governments, which is one of the
cause of the warring period that followed.
The series of events leading to the collapse of dynastic power and the rise
of Cao Cao are extremely complex. The death of Emperor Ling in May 189 led to
an unstable regency under General-in-chief He Jin and renewed rivalry between
the factions of the eunuchs and regular civil bureaucracy. Following the assassination
of He Jin, his chief ally the Colonel-Lieutenant of Retainers Yuan Shao led
a massacre of the eunuchs in the imperial palaces in Luoyang. This event prompted
the invitation of frontier general Dong Zhuo to enter Luoyang from the northwest
boundary of China. At the time China faced the powerful barbarians of Qiang
tribe to the northwest, and thus Dong Zhuo controlled an army of great number
with elite trainings. When he brought the army to Luoyang, he was able to easily
overpower the existing armies of both side and took control of the imperial
court, ushering in a period of civil war across China.
Dong Zhuo then manipulated the succession so that the future Emperor Xian could
take the throne in lieu of his elder half-brother. (Dong Zhuo, while ambitious,
genuinely wished for a more capable emperor. On his way to Luoyang, he encountered
a small team of soldiers protecting the two sons of Emperor Ling fleeing the
war zone. In the encounter Dong Zhuo acted arrogantly and threatening, causing
the elder half-brother to be paralyzed with fear; but the younger brother, future
Emperor Xian, responded calmly with authority and commanded Dong Zhuo to protect
the royal family with his army to return to the Imperial Court.)
While Dong Zhuo originally wanted to re-establish the authority of Han Empire
and manage all the political conflict properly, his political capability proved
to be much worse than his military leadership. His behaviour grew more and more
violent and authoritarian, executing or sending into exile all that opposed
him, and showed less and less respect to the Emperor. He ignored all royal etiquette
and openly carried weapons into the imperial court frequently. In 190 a coalition
led by Yuan Shao was formed between nearly all the provincial authorities in
the eastern provinces of the empire against Dong Zhuo. The mounting pressure
from repeated defeat on the southern frontline against the Sun Jian forces drove
the Han Emperor and later Dong Zhuo himself west to Chang'an in May 191.
Dong Zhuo again demonstrated his lack of management of a country by forcing
millions of residents of Luoyang to migrate to Chang'an, then set fire to Luoyang
to destroy the biggest city in China at that time, so that his enemies would
not gain useful supplies from occupying it. In addition, he ordered his army
to slaughter a whole village of civilians, cutting off their heads and carried
them into Chang'an to show off as war trophies, pretending to have had a great
victory against his enemies. A year later Dong Zhuo was killed in a coup d'etat
by Wang Yun and L Ê Bu (who was Dong Zhuo's godson).
The Three Kingdoms in 262, on the eve of the conquest of Shu.
The rise of Cao Cao
In 191 there was some talk among the coalition of appointing Liu Yu, an imperial
relative, as emperor, and gradually its members began to fall out. Most of the
warlords, with a few exceptions, in the coalition sought the increase of personal
military power in the time of instability instead of seriously wishing to restore
Han Dynasty's authority. The Han empire was divided between a number of regional
warlords. Yuan Shao occupied the northern area of Ye and extended his power,
by taking over his superior Han Fu with trickery and intimidation, north of
the Yellow River against Gongsun Zan, who held the northern frontier. Cao Cao,
directly to Yuan's south, was engaged in a struggle against Yuan Shu and Liu
Biao, who occupied respectively the Huai River basin and Middle Yangzi regions.
Further south the young warlord Sun Ce, taking over after the untimely death
of Sun Jian, was establishing his rule in the Lower Yangzi, albeit as a subordinate
of Yuan Shu. In the west, Liu Zhang held Yizhou province whilst Hanzhong and
the northwest was controlled by a motley collection of smaller warlords such
as Ma Teng of Xiliang, the original post of Dong Zhuo.
Dong Zhuo, confident in his success, was slain by his own adopted son, L Ê Bu.
L Ê Bu, in turn, was attacked by Dong Zhuo's supporters, Li Jue and Guo Si. He
fled to Zhang Yang, a northern warlord, and remained with him for a time before
briefly joining Yuan Shao, but it was clear that L Ê Bu was far too independent
to serve another.
In August 195, Emperor Xian fled the tyranny of Li Jue at Chang'an and made
a year-long hazardous journey east in search of supporters. By 196, when he
was received by Cao Cao, most of the smaller contenders for power had either
been absorbed by larger ones or destroyed. This is an extremely important move
for Cao Cao with the suggestion from his primary advisor, Xun Yu, commenting
that by supporting the authentic Emperor, Cao Cao would have the formal legal
authority to control the other warlords and force them to comply in order to
restore the Han dynasty.
Cao Cao, whose zone of control was the precursor to the Kingdom of Wei, had
raised an army in the winter of 189. In several strategic movements and battles,
he controlled the Dui province and defeated several fractions of the Yellow
Turban rebels and earned him the aid of other local militaries controlled by
Zhang Miao and Chen Gong, who joined his cause to create his first sizable army.
He continued the effort and absorbed approximately 300,000 Yellow Turbans into
his army as well as a number of clan-based military groups particular to the
eastern side of Qing province. In 196 he established an imperial court at Xuchang
and developed military agricultural colonies (tuntian) to support his army.
The system did impose a heavy tax in terms of the produces (40% to 60%) for
hired civilian farmers, but all the farmers are more than pleased to be able
to work with relative stability and professional military protection in a time
of chaos. This is later said to be his second important policy to success.
In 194, Cao Cao went to war with Tao Qian of Xuzhou. Tao Qian received the support
of Liu Bei and Gongsun Zan, but even then, it seemed as if Cao Cao's superior
forces would overrun Xuzhou entirely. However, Cao Cao received word that L Ê
Bu had seized Yan province in Cao Cao's absence, and thus, he retreated, putting
a halt to hostilities with Tao Qian for the time being. Tao Qian died that same
year, leaving his province to Liu Bei. A year later, in 195, Cao Cao managed
to drive L Ê Bu out of Yan. L Ê Bu fled to Xuzhou and was received by Liu Bei,
and an uneasy alliance began between the two.
In the south, Sun Ce, then an independent general under the service of Yuan
Shu, defeated the warlords of Yangzhou, including Liu Yao, Wang Lang, and Yan
Baihu. The speed with which Sun Ce accomplished his conquests led to his nickname,
"Little Overlord" (¤pÅQ¤ý), a reference to the late Xiang Yu. In 197,
Yuan Shu, who was at odds with Cao Cao, Yuan Shao, and Liu Bei, felt assured
of victory with his subordinate's conquests, and thus declared himself emperor
of the Cheng Dynasty. The move, however, was a tactical blunder, as it drew
the ire of many warlords across the land, including Yuan Shu's own subordinate
Sun Ce, who had advised Yuan Shu not to make such a move. Cao Cao issued orders
to Sun Ce to attack Yuan Shu. Sun Ce complied, but first convinced Cao Cao to
form a coalition against Yuan Shu, of which Liu Bei and L Ê Bu were members.
Attacked on all sides, Yuan Shu was defeated and fled into hiding.
Afterwards, L Ê Bu betrayed Liu Bei and seized Xuzhou, forming an alliance with
Yuan Shu's remnant forces. Liu Bei fled to Cao Cao, who accepted him. Soon,
preparations were made for an attack on L Ê Bu, and the combined forces of Cao
Cao and Liu Bei besieged Xia Pi. L Ê Bu's officers deserted him, Yuan Shu's forces
never arrived as reinforcements, and he was bound by his own soldiers and executed
along with many of his officers. Thus, the man known as the mightiest warrior
in the land was no more.
In 200, Dong Cheng, an officer of the Imperial Court, received a secret edict
from the Emperor to assassinate Cao Cao. He collaborated with Liu Bei on this
effort, but Cao Cao soon found out about the plot and had Dong Cheng and his
co-conspirators executed, with only Liu Bei surviving and fleeing to the Yuan
Shao in the north.
After settling the nearby provinces, including a rebellion led by former Yellow
Turbans, and internal affairs with the court, Cao Cao turned his attention north
to Yuan Shao, who himself had eliminated his northern rival Gongsun Zan that
same year. Yuan Shao, himself of higher nobility than Cao Cao, amassed a large
army and camped along the northern bank of the Yellow river.
In 200, after winning a decisive battle against Liu Biao at Shaxian and putting
down the rebellions of Xu Gong and others, Sun Ce was struck by an arrow and
fatally wounded. On his deathbed, he named his younger brother, Sun Quan, as
his heir.
Following months of planning, Cao Cao and Yuan Shao met in force at Guandu.
Overcoming Yuan's superior numbers, (actual numbers vary in different sources,
but Yuan Shao having absolute superior number manyfolds is universally accepted)
Cao Cao decisively defeated him by setting fire to his supplies, and in doing
so crippled the northern army. Liu Bei fled to Liu Biao of Jing province, and
many of Yuan Shao's forces were destroyed. In 202, Cao Cao took advantage of
Yuan Shao's death and the resulting division among his sons to advance north
of the Yellow River. He captured Ye in 204 and occupied the provinces of Ji,
Bing, Qing and You. By the end of 207, after a lightning campaign against the
Wuhuan barbarians, Cao Cao had achieved undisputed dominance of the North China
Plain.
Red Cliffs and its aftermath
In 208, Cao Cao marched south with his army hoping to quickly unify the empire.
Liu Biao's son Liu Zong surrendered the province of Jing and Cao was able to
capture a sizeable fleet at Jiangling. Sun Quan, the successor to Sun Ce in
the Lower Yangzi, continued to resist however. His advisor Lu Su secured an
alliance with Liu Bei, himself a recent refugee from the north, and Sun Ce's
sworn brother Zhou Yu was placed in command of Sun Quan's navy, along with a
veteran officer of the Sun family, Cheng Pu. Their combined armies of 50,000
met Cao Cao's fleet and 200,000-strong force at Red Cliffs (also known as Chi
Bi) that winter. After an initial skirmish, an attack with fireships inflicted
a decisive defeat on Cao Cao, forcing him to retreat in disarray back to the
north. The allied victory at Red Cliffs ensured the survival of Liu Bei and
Sun Quan, and provided the basis for the states of Shu and Wu.
After his return to the north, Cao Cao contented himself with absorbing the
northwestern regions in 211 and consolidating his power. He progressively increased
his titles and power, eventually becoming the Prince of Wei in 217, a title
bestowed upon him by the puppet Han emperor that he controlled. Liu Bei, having
defeated the weak Jing warlords Han Xuan, Jin Xuan, Zhao Fan, and Liu Du, entered
Yi province and later in 214 displaced Liu Zhang as ruler, leaving his commander
Guan Yu in charge of Jing province. Sun Quan, who had in the intervening years
being engaged with defenses against Cao Cao in the southeast at Hefei, now turned
his attention to Jing province and the Middle Yangzi. Tensions between the allies
were increasingly visible. In 219, after Liu Bei successfully seized Hanzhong
from Cao Cao and as Guan Yu was engaged in the siege of Fan, Sun Quan's commander-in-chief
L Ê Meng secretly seized Jing province.
Three emperors
In the first month of 220, Cao Cao died and in the tenth month his son Cao Pi
forced Emperor Xian to abdicate to him, thus ending the Han Dynasty. He named
his state Wei and made himself emperor at Luoyang. In 221, Liu Bei named himself
Emperor of Han, in a bid to restore the fallen Han dynasty. (His state is known
to history as "Shu" or "Shu-Han".) In the same year, Wei
bestowed on Sun Quan the title of King of Wu. A year later, Shu-Han troops declared
war on Wu and met the Wu armies at the Battle of Yiling. At Yiling, Liu Bei
was disastrously defeated by Sun Quan's commander Lu Xun and forced to retreat
back to Shu, where he died soon afterward. After the death of Liu Bei, Shu and
Wu resumed friendly relations at the expense of Wei, thus stabilizing the tripartite
configuration. In 222, Sun Quan renounced his recognition of Cao Pi's regime
and, in 229, he declared himself emperor at Wuchang.
Dominion of the north completely belonged to Wei, whilst Shu occupied the southwest
and Wu the central south and east. The external borders of the states were generally
limited to the extent of Chinese civilization. For example, the political control
of Shu on its southern frontier was limited by the Tai tribes of modern Yunnan
and Burma, known collectively as the Southern Barbarians («nÆZ).
Population
The population could be derived from the official record of Chen Shou's Sanguo
Zhi. In terms of manpower, the Wei was by far the largest, retaining more than
660,000 households and 4,400,000 people within its borders. Shu had a population
of 940,000, and Wu 2,300,000. Thus, Wei had more than 58% of the population
and around 40% of territory. With these resources, it is estimated that it could
raise an army of 440,000 whilst Shu and Wu could manage 100,000 and 230,000.
The Wu-Shu alliance against the Wei proved itself to be a militarily stable
configuration; the basic borders of the Three Kingdoms remained almost unchanging
for more than forty years.
Trade and transport
In economic terms the division of the Three Kingdoms reflected a reality that
long endured. Even in the Northern Song, seven hundred years after the Three
Kingdoms, it was possible to think of China as being composed of three great
regional markets. (The status of the northwest was slightly ambivalent, as it
had links with the northern region and Sichuan). These geographical divisions
are underscored by the fact that the main communication routes between the three
main regions were all man-made: the Grand Canal linking north and south, the
hauling-way through the Three Gorges of the Yangzi linking southern China with
Sichuan and the gallery roads joining Sichuan with the northwest. The break
into three separate entities was quite natural and even anticipated by such
political foresight as Zhuge Liang (see Longzhong Plan ¶©¤¤¹ï).
Consolidation
In 223 Liu Shan rose to the throne of Shu following his father's defeat and
death. The defeat of Liu Bei at Yiling ended the period of hostility between
Wu and Shu and both used the opportunity to concentrate on internal problems
and the external enemy of Wei. For Sun Quan, the victory terminated his fears
of Shu expansion into Jing province and he turned to the aborigines of the southeast,
whom the Chinese collectively called the "Shanyue" peoples (see Yue).
A collection of successes against the rebellious tribesmen culminated in the
victory of 234. In that year Zhuge Ke ended a three year siege of Danyang with
the surrender of 100,000 Shanyue. Of these, 40,000 were drafted as auxiliaries
into the Wu army. Meanwhile Shu was also experiencing troubles with the indigenous
tribes of their south. The South-western Nanman peoples rose in revolt against
Han authority, captured and looted the city of Yizhou. Zhuge Liang, recognising
the importance of stability in the south, ordered the advance of the Shu armies
in three columns against the Nanman. He fought a number of engagements against
the chieftain Meng Huo, at the end of which Meng submitted. A tribesman was
allowed to reside at the Shu capital Chengdu as an official and the Nanman formed
their own battalions within the Shu army.
Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions
At the end of Zhuge Liang's southern campaign, the Wu-Shu alliance came to fruition
and Shu was free to move against north. In 227 Zhuge Liang transferred his main
Shu armies to Hanzhong, and opened up the battle for the northwest with Wei.
(See Northern Expeditions) The next year, he ordered the general Zhao Yun to
attack from Ji Gorge as a diversion whilst Zhuge himself led the main force
to Qishan. The vanguard Ma Su, however, suffered a tactical defeat at Jieting
and the Shu army was forced to withdraw. In the next six years Zhuge Liang attempted
several more offensives, but supply problems limited the capacity for success.
In 234 he led his last great northern offensive, reaching the Battle of Wuzhang
Plains south of the Wei River. Due to the death of Zhuge Liang (234 AD), however,
the Shu army was forced once again to withdraw.
Zhuge Liang had five attempts in the north, only one of which succeeded (Tianshui)
where he gained Jiang Wei after a successful defection plot. Zhuge Liang other
attempts included Chencang, Mt. Qi, Jieting (supply campaign) and the Wuzhang
Plains. There were also some other minor attempts to the north but they were
considered as minor battles that had no major outcomes. After the death of Zhuge
Liang his assistant Jiang Wan took over.
Wu and development of the south
In the times of Zhuge Liang's great northern offensives, the state of Wu had
always been on the defensive against invasions from the north. The area around
Hefei was under constant pressure from Wei after the Battle of Red Cliffs and
the scene of many bitter battles. Warfare had grown so intense that many of
the residents chose to migrate and resettle south of the Yangzi. After Zhuge
Liang's death, attacks on the Huainan region intensified but nonetheless, Wei
could not break through the line of the river defenses erected by Wu, which
included the Ruxu fortress.
Sun Quan's long reign is regarded as a time of plenty for his southern state.
Migrations from the north and the settlement of the Shanyue increased manpower
for agriculture, especially along the lower reaches of the Yangzi and in Kuaiji
commandery. River transport blossomed, with the construction of the Zhedong
and Jiangnan canals. Trade with Shu flourished, with a huge influx of Shu cotton
and the development of celadon and metal industries. Ocean transport was improved
to such an extent that sea journeys were made to Manchuria and the island of
Taiwan. In the south, Wu merchants reached Linyi (southern Vietnam) and Fu'nan
(Cambodia). As the economy prospered, so too did the arts and culture. In the
Yangzi delta, the first Buddhist influences reached the south from Luoyang.
(See Buddhism in China)
Decline and end of the Three Kingdoms
From the late 230s tensions began to become visible between the imperial Cao
clan and the Sima clan. Following the death of Cao Zhen, factionalism was evident
between Cao Shuang and the Grand Commander Sima Yi. In deliberations, Cao Shuang
placed his own supporters in important posts and excluded Sima, whom he regarded
as a threat. The power of the Sima clan, one of the great landowning families
of the Han, was bolstered by Sima Yi's military victories. Additionally, Sima
Yi was an extremely capable strategist and politician. In 238 he crushed the
rebellion of Gongsun Yuan and brought the Liaodong region directly under central
control. Ultimately, he outmaneuvered Cao Shuang in power play. Taking advantage
of an excursion by the imperial clansmen to the Gaoping tombs, Sima undertook
a putsch in Luoyang, forcing Cao Shuang's faction from authority. Many protested
to the overwhelming power of the Sima family; notable of which were the Seven
Sages of the Bamboo Grove. One of the sages, Xi Kang, was executed as part of
the purges after Cao Shuang's downfall.
Fall of Shu
The decreasing strength of the Cao clan was mirrored by the decline of Shu.
Zhuge Liang gained large amounts of Wei's land. After Zhuge Liang's death, his
position as Lieutenant Chancellor fell to Jiang Wan, Fei Yi and Dong Yun, in
that order. But after 258, Shu politics became increasingly controlled by the
eunuch faction and corruption rose. Despite the energetic efforts of Jiang Wei,
Zhuge's prot Ág Á, Shu was unable to secure any decisive victory against Wei.
In 263, Wei launched a three-pronged attack and the Shu army was forced into
general retreat from Hanzhong. Jiang Wei hurriedly held a position at Jiange
but he was outflanked by the Wei commander Deng Ai, who force-marched his army
from Yinping through territory formerly considered impassable. By the winter
of the year, the capital Chengdu had fallen and the emperor Liu Shan had surrendered.
The state of Shu had come to an end after forty-three years.
Fall of Wei
Cao Huan succeeded to the throne in 260 after Cao Mao was killed by Sima Zhao.
Soon after, Sima Zhao died and his title as Lord of Jin was inherited by his
son Sima Yan. Sima Yan immediately began plotting to become Emperor but faced
stiff opposition. However, due to advice from his advisors, Cao Huan decided
the best course of action would be to abdicate, unlike his predecessor Cao Mao.
Sima Yan seized the throne in 264 after forcing Cao Huan's abdication, effectively
overthrowing the Wei Dynasty and establishing the successor Jin Dynasty. This
situation was similar to the deposal of Emperor Xian of the Han Dynasty by Cao
Pi, the founder of the Wei Dynasty.
Fall of Wu
Following Sun Quan's death and the ascension of the young Sun Liang as emperor
in 252, the kingdom of Wu went into a period of steady decline. Successful Wei
oppression of rebellions in the Huainan region by Sima Zhao and Sima Shi reduced
any opportunity of Wu influence. The fall of Shu signalled a change in Wei politics.
Sima Yan (grandson of Sima Yi), after accepting the surrender of Liu Shan, overthrew
the Wei emperor and proclaimed his own dynasty of Jin in 264, ending forty-six
years of Cao dominion in the north. After Jin's rise, Emperor Sun Xiu of Wu
died, and his ministers left the throne to Sun Hao. Sun Hao was a promising
young man, but upon ascension he became a tyrant, killing or exiling all who
dared oppose him in the court. In 269 Yang Hu, Jin commander in the south, started
preparing for the invasion of Wu by ordering the construction of a fleet and
training of marines in Sichuan under Wang Jun. Four years later, Lu Kang, the
last great general of Wu, died, leaving no competent successor. The planned
Jin offensive finally came in the winter of 279. Sima Yan launched five simultaneous
offensives along the Yangzi River from Jianye to Jiangling whilst the Sichuan
fleet sailed downriver to Jing province. Under the strain of such an enormous
attack, the Wu forces collapsed and Jianye fell in the third month of 280. Emperor
Sun Hao surrendered and was given a fiefdom to live out his days on. This marked
the end of the Three Kingdoms era, and the beginning of a break in the upcoming
300 years of chaos.